Baskin, Katherine, 1994. "A Successful Model for Regional Consensus Building Southern States Waste Management Coalition," Southern States Energy Board Solid Waste Association of North America 5th Annual South Eastern Regional Solid Waste. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, October 31-November 3, pp. 291-297.

The Southern States Waste Management Coalition, with representation from government, private industries, and nongovernment organizations, uses a consensus process to address waste management issues in the 16 southern states which are members of the Southern States Energy Board (SSEB). The Coalition is tasked with addressing the waste management issue of recycling and market development, source reduction, reuse, composting, safe land filling, and energy recovery. Tools used by the Coalition include a regular report of successful programs, a summary of relevant legislation, a database on solid waste management, guidebooks for local decision makers, a commodity guidebook, and research projects. Abstract. Enviroline Dialog File 40.

"Best Practices for Government Agencies: Guidelines for Using Collaborative Approaches to Develop Policy Agreements" Environmental/Public Disputes Sector Critical Issues Committee. In Report and Recommendations of the SPIDR Environmental/Public Disputes Sector Critical Issues Committee, December 1996, pp. 1-12.

Blackburn, J. Walton and Willa Marie Bruce, ed., 1995. Mediating Environmental Conflicts: Theory and Practice. Westport, Connecticut: Quorum Books.

This book examines the techniques and approaches of mediation used to solve environment-related conflicts. It explores existing research on aspects of environmental mediation including citizen participation in resolution, theoretical concepts relevant to training mediators, ethical and social justice concerns, and applications for local governments.

Bonomo, Tom, 1995. "Public Involvement and Consensus Building in the Verde River Watershed in Central Arizona." In Bringing Interests and Concerns Together: Conference Proclamation, United States Forest Service Desired Future Conditions for South Western Riparian Ecosystems. Albuquerque, New Mexico, pp. 230-237.

Consensus building and public participation in water issues in the Verde River, AZ, watershed are facilitated by the Verde Watershed Association (VWA). The VWA represents progress in efforts to resolve watershed issues without enactment of new laws or reliance on litigation. The organization is founded on the belief that effective river management and protection schemes can only succeed with local consensus and support. Accomplishments and functions of VWA to date are summarized. Abstract. Enviroline Dialog File 40.

Chase, Stuart, 1951. Roads To Agreement: Successful Methods in the Science of Human Relations. New York: Harper, pp. Ch. 6 p. 45-55 "Quaker Meeting."

Chistopherson, John and Steven R. Lewis, 1996. "Lake Tahoe's Forest Health Consensus Group." Journal of Forestry, vol. 94, no. 8 (August, 1996), 10-13.

The forest of Lake Tahoe Basin is in decline: a high rate of tree mortality over the past five years is attributed to susceptibility to insects, pathogens, and other problems, ultimately caused by forest management practices of fire suppression and monoculture. The Forest Health Consensus Group (FHCG) was formed in 1992 by the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency to restore the health of the forest while protecting residents from the threat of fire. Representatives from government, environmental groups, private businesses, the general public, and academic institutions are working together to build consensus in an attempt to create sustainable agreements for solving forest health problems. Abstract. Enviroline Dialog File 40.

Dean, James W., Jr. and Mark P. Sharfman, 1996. "Does Decision Process Matter? A Study of Strategic Decision-Making Effectiveness." Academy of Management Journal, vol. 39, no. 2(April 1996), 368-397.

This study examined whether strategic decision-making processes are related to decision effectiveness, using a longitudinal field study design. We studied 52 decisions in 24 companies to determine if procedural rationality and political behavior influence decision success, controlling for the favorability of the environment and decision implementation. Our results indicate that decision-making processes are indeed related to decision success. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of strategic choice in organizations. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.) Abstract. Management Contents Dialog File 75.

Can consensus-building techniques be effectively applied in the resources planning process? The authors describe a consensus-building process used by the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California in developing an Integrated Resources Plan for the region. The process was a modification of that used by the American Assembly. The modifications included establishing a steering committee to set the agenda and decide other details; holding a series of assemblies rather than just one; and conducting a number of open forums around the region to solicit public input. Despite having to address very controversial issues, the consensus-building process succeeded in moving Metropolitan and its Member Agencies to a much higher level of regional cooperation than had been achieved in the past. The process may be useful for a wide range of planning techniques and decision-making frameworks. Abstract. IAC Business Arts Dialog File 88.

The rich natural resources of the Pacific Northwest have been exploited and subverted by a generation who believed that the sublimation of nature was the will of men. Adversarial litigation in the 1960s and 1970s challenged this assumption, and led to the Timber/Fish/Wildlife Agreement of 1986-87, and the Chelan process of 1990. This agreement provided a framework for the public discussion and decision making process for resource policy. The policy recommendations that resulted were coupled with the results from three pilot projects in three of the state's 62 water resource inventory areas. Abstract. Enviroline Dialog File 40.

This study explores group participants' bias toward reducing conflict in consensus versus majority decision styles. Recent research suggests that diminished disagreement seriously jeopardizes the quality of groups' final decisions. This study tests for conflict expectation differences between consensus and majority processes. A semantic differential questionnaire examines expectation ratings for consensus versus majority processes. Results suggest that the participants expect climate in consensus process to be more agreeable and friendly than in majority process. Among subjects, MSW's showed greater confidence in consensus than in majority, but MBA's did not. In practice, both professions frequently engage in consensus group decision making. Implications of the findings suggest that consensus process might be governed by an "agreement norm" that has the potential to restrict disagreements needed to reach sound decisions. Abstract taken directly from source document.

Forest managers must reconcile the differences of multiple stakeholders, and must chart a course that accommodates the requirements of habitat protection, wetlands protection, private property rights, logging, and federal, state and local laws. In framing an approach to resolving these conflicts, resource managers can look to American history and political theory. In this context, collective action offers the only means to preserve individual rights and goals, with the government acting as the go between for special interests. The belief in autonomy supported by the Federalists is compared with classical republicanism and its support of the common good and consensus process. Abstract. Enviroline Dialog File 40.

Hassler, Allison, In Report on the Hardesty Consensus Group Plan: Land and Resource Management Planning., Hardesty Mountain Consensus Group. November 14, 1984-April 11, 1985.

The Hardesty Consensus Group aimed to agree upon an alternative for management of an area of land disputed by environmentalists and the timber industry. This paper gives a meeting-by-meeting summation of the process that the Consensus Group followed. It also provides a detailed explanation of the group's final plan, and an outlook for the future.

Horniman, Sarah and Lance deHaven-Smith. "American Assemblies: A Tested Approach for Developing a Growth Management Consensus." Growth Management Innovations, 31-41.

The American Assembly approach has been used with considerable success by state, regional, county, and local governments in order to establish a community-based consensus on complex public problems and promote communication between fragmented but interdependent groups. Certain issues, particularly those involving multi-jurisdictional decision making, require cooperative partnerships between diverse entities. The American Assembly process provides a unique opportunity for a cross section of the community to explore and evaluate complex issues and problems as a whole rather than from an organizational or individual perspective. Abstract taken directly from source document.

This field study used 80 employees of a data-processing firm to examine the consequences of membership in voting majority and minority subgroups after implementation of a decision and the ability of postdecisional voice to ameliorate the negative consequences of membership in the voting minority. In the absence of postdecisional voice, employees in the minority subgroup perceived the decision process as less fair, were less satisfied with the decision outcome, reported lower levels of task commitment, and produced 41% less output than employees in the voting majority subgroup. Following post-decisional voice, employees in the voting minority subgroup reported improved perceptions of fairness and task commitment, and the output increased by 34%. Postdecisional voice had no detectable effect on employee satisfaction with the decision outcome.

The city planning ideal of comprehensive planning was subject to a devastating critique from Alan Altshuler in 1965; a response to this critique is presented. The critique challenged the legitimacy of comprehensive planning and of planning expertise as having little theoretical basis. Since then, political and social theory has evolved to provide intellectual support for current planning practices. Consensus building with stakeholders represents a planning model that rebuts Altshuler's arguments. Consensus building is based on assumptions about the nature of knowledge, the organization of interests, and the nature of the public interest. These are different assumptions than were used in Altshuler's critique. Eight case studies of consensus building for growth and environmental issues in California and the New Jersey state planning process provide evidence for this model. The application of consensus building to local comprehensive planning is discussed. Abstract. Enviroline Dialog File 40.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether and how consensus building is useful for coordinating growth management. The study was devised to recommend to the California Legislature principles for designing a growth management program for the state. The findings outline the processes, the conditions, incentives and institutional settings in which consensus building appears to be most effective. Abstract taken directly from source document.

This issue has a focus on consensus in heath care.

Past research on strategic decision-making processes has focused on how the quality of decisions might be enhanced but has largely ignored the affective responses of team members to the processes employed to make strategic decisions. Nonetheless, theory suggests that how groups members respond to decision processes is important to the level of cooperation that can be achieved. Kim and Mauborgne (1993) took an important step in illuminating this phenomenon by demonstrating the link between fairness perceptions and cooperative behaviour. In this study, we sought extend their work by examining the antecedents of perceptions of procedural justice and to extend the existing literature on strategic decision making by examining how commitment, attachment, and trust are created- or undermined- through the strategic decision-making process. Abstract taken directly from source document.

This study examined how decision-making procedures can facilitate the positive attitudes necessary for cooperative relations in decision-making teams. We hypothesized that consideration of member input and members' influence on a decision affect their perceptions of procedural fairness and consequently, their commitment to the decision, attachment to the group, and trust in its leader. An experiment involving intact management teams supported these hypotheses and indicated that perceived fairness partially mediated the impact of procedures on commitment, attachment, and trust. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.) Abstract. Management Contents Dialog File 75.

Lan, Zhiyong, 1997. "A Conflict Resolution Approach to Public Administration." Public Administration Review, vol. 57, no. 1(January-February 1997), 27-36.

Public administrators often have to deal with conflicts. However, many public administrators have not been adequately exposed to the skills and rationales of conflict resolution. Ample literature about conflict exists in sister disciplines such as sociology, international relations, and labor relations. These studies focus on the impact of conflict, the nature of conflict, the players in the conflict, and possible strategies for conflict resolution. These studies can help public administrators better understand the nature of their work as well as their roles as conflict resolvers, conflict observers, or parties to conflict. The field of public administration could benefit greatly by incorporating the conflict resolution perspective into its teaching and research. Abstract. IAC Business Arts Dialog File 88.

The framework for participation and decision making in the Grande-Baleine hydroelectric project developed by the Inuit of Quebec Province, Canada, is outlined. The Inuit attempted to apply the consultation concept advocated by the World Bank to the project. Negotiations between the Inuit and Hydro-Quebec are summarized, as is the environmental assessment process, and the decision making path which led to a final consensus is explained. The Inuit task force made presentations at public hearings held in the communities, responded to a consultation document distributed by the provincial utility in each community, and submitted an environmental impact statement to the appropriate level of scrutiny required. Abstract. Enviroline Dialog File 40.

Louis, Meryl Reis, 1994. "In the Manner of Friends: Learnings From Practice for Organizational Renewal." Journal of Organizational Change Management, vol. 7, no. 1, 42-60.

Mainsbridge, Jane J., 1983. "Unitary versus Adversary Democracy, The Inner Logic of Adversary Democracy, Consensus and the Common Interest, Consensus." In Beyond Adversary Democracy. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, pp. 8-22, 23-35, 163-182, 252-269.

McKearnan, Sarah, 1999. The Consensus Building Handbook. To be published in Spring 1999: Sage.

This book will seek to codify and explain what is known about consensus building in all kinds of organizational settings-from informal social organizations (like community and church groups), to not-for-profits, to teams inside corporations, to ad hoc public dialogues, to groups negotiating on a global scale. The first [part] will be a free-standing, 20-25 page set of guidelines, principles and procedures that offer an alternative to Robert's Rules of Order. The second part of the Handbook will include seventeen chapters written by leading practicioners. The third part will be devoted to detailed case studies of consensus building in different settings. Abstract taken directly from the Consensus Building Institute, inc. list of publications.

Moreno, Jonathan D., 1995. Deciding Together: Bioethics and Moral Consensus. New York: Oxford University Press.

Nemiroff, Paul M., William A. Pasmore and David L. Ford, Jr., 1976. "The Effects of Two Normative Structural Interventions on Established and Ad Hoc Groups: Implications for Improving Decision-Making Effectiveness." Decision Sciences, vol. 7, 841-855.

This paper focuses on a direct comparison of consensual, nominal, and conventional decision making techniques in established and ad hoc groups. The impact of the structural interventions on group decision quality and group attitudes is examined, and the appropriateness of the techniques in various situations is discussed.

O'Leary, Rosemary, 1997. "Environmental Meditation and Public Managers: What do We Know and How Do We Know It?" O'Leary is the Co-Director of the Indiana Conflict Resolution Institute, Fourth National Public Management Research Conference. The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, October 31, 1997, pp. 1-25.

Paley, Eric, 1997. "'Partnering' Helps You End-Run Costly Disputes." Consensus, vol. 36 (October, 1997), 1, 9.

Partridge, Percy Herbert, 1071. Consent and Consensus. New York: Praeger.

Pollard, Francis, Beatrice Pollard and Robert Pollard. Democracy and the Quaker Method. London: The Bannisdale Press. p. 35-63

Quaker worship and procedure at business meetings; Chapter V notes early use in non-Q organizations.

Priem, Richard L., 1990. "Top Management Team Group Factors, Consensus, and Firm Performance." Strategic Management Journal, vol. 11, 469-478.

An expanded version of consensus-performance theory is presented. The composition, structure, and strategic decision-making processes of top management teams are presented as antecedents to the relationship between consensus and performance. The level of consensus that will result in the best performance is somewhere between total consensus and total disagreement. Abstract. IAC Business Arts Dialog File 88.

The effectiveness of structured decision-making techniques created to facilitate the expression of cognitive conflict is examined. It is hypothesized that these decision-making methods will boost group consensus about and individual acceptance of the ultimate choices of the group and will boost member satisfaction with the group. A total of 19 groups are required to deliberate employing the structured, conflict-increasing dialectic inquiry (DI) method while another set of 19 groups is made to deliberate using the consensus (C) method. Results show that group consensus on the decision, individual acceptance of the decision and member satisfaction with the group were greater in the DI group than in the C group. Implications are discussed. Abstract. IAC Business Arts Dialog File 88. Note: consensus in these articles is typically defined as a process without conflict.

Process and outcome expectations for the decision-making techniques of dialectical inquiry (DI), devil's advocacy (DA), and consensus (C) were examined. Data were collected by surveying 55 graduate and 117 undergraduate business students at a large university. The results indicated that the participants had varying expectations about the processes and outcomes that could occur when certain decision-making techniques were used in strategic decision making. The participants expected higher levels of social harmony to occur when the C technique was used, moderate levels when DI was used, and lower levels when DA was used. Abstract. IAC Business Arts Dialog File 88. Note: consensus in these articles is typically defined as a process without conflict.

"Resources...Paid Listings." Consensus, vol. 36 (October, 1997), 10-11.

This is a listing of dispute resolution centers throughout the United States.

Ruckelshaus, William D., 1997. "From Conflict to Collaboration: Restoring Trust in Government" Institute for Environment and Natural Resources. University of Wyoming, May 1, 1997.

This paper advocates a more collaborative and participatory way of performing negotiations regarding environment and natural resource problems as a way to avoid further public frustration with the current political arrangements. It provides several examples of how this type of process has been developed by various educational and environment-related groups.

Research has found that groups using dialectical inquiry or devil's advocacy techniques make better strategic planning decisions than do groups using consensus. The improvement in decision-making capabilities was attributed to an efficient use of individual group members' capabilities by dialectical inquiry and devil's advocacy techniques. The dialectical inquiry group and the devil's advocacy group produced recommendations that were of a higher quality than the consensus group or the average of individual members of the respective groups. Abstract. IAC Business Arts Dialog File 88. Note: consensus in these articles is typically defined as a process without conflict.

Three forms of strategic policy group decision making were evaluated in light of production and satisfaction results. The dialectical inquiry and devils advocacy processes proved to produce solutions of superior quality, while consensus methodologies resulted in higher group satisfaction and acceptance levels, and generated a stronger desire to continue in the group framework. Abstract. IAC Business Arts Dialog File 88.

This longitudinal laboratory study of fast-advancing middle managers involved in strategic planning compared the effectiveness of dialectical inquiry, devil's advocacy, and consensus approaches to group strategic decision making. Compared to consensus groups, groups using dialectical inquiry and devil's advocacy made significantly higher quality decisions. Members of such groups reported more reevaluation of their own assumptions and recommendations but lower acceptance of their group's decisions than members of consensus groups. There were no differences between dialectical inquiry and devil's advocacy groups. Experience in using the three decision-making approaches improved decision quality, critical reevaluation levels, and the reactions of group members and reduced the time required to reach decisions. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.) Abstract. IAC Business Arts Dialog File 88.

This study by a non-Quaker is particularly useful for its description of the manner of handling dissent and the concept of unity.

Spears, Larry, 1996. "Consensus Councils: A Practical Innovation in Democratic Governance That Can Be Applied Everywhere." Presentation to the Economic Development Institute of The World Bank. Washington, D.C., May 8, 1996,

The consensus council is a practical, adaptable framework for supporting and strengthening the processes of representative democracies. It is responsive to the need for change in democratic institutions to meet rising public expectations for new forms of citizen participation. The products of consensus council processes set a standard for practicality and ease of implementation. The pan-partisan leader trusteeship of the council protects the integrity of the processes in service to productive public life. Abstract taken directly from source document.

Conflict, agitation, and delay have long defined policy making in the environmental arena. Yet in recent years, collaboration has been utilized in a limited number of cases in an attempt to develop regulatory policy that is more robust and enforceable, and that requires less time and money to develop. A growing literature examines these collaborative ventures, but two questions are left unanswered: Why is collaboration initiated in some instances and not in others, and why does collaboration fail in some instances, yet produce consensus in others? In this article we examine the collaborative effort to negotiate a regulation (a "reg-neg") for the development and use of reformulated gasoline (RFG) as a means to reduce urban smog. While the reformulated gasoline case met criteria established by regulators as essential for applying a reg-neg, the potential for conflict and indeed failure was very high. Nevertheless, a consensus agreement was reached and the reformulated gasoline rule was implemented on time (January 1995) as mandated by Congress. Based upon interviews conducted with participants in the reformulated gasoline reg-neg and government documents related to the proceedings, we identify a three-part "assurance mechanism " necessary for bringing participants to the negotiating table and keeping them there until an agreement is reached. This mechanism stands as a model to be tested in other research of collaborative policy making. We also examine the effectiveness of collaboration for producing a workable and acceptable regulation. Abstract. IAC Business Arts Dialog File 88.

The process of the GCVTC, especially within its Public Advisory Committee, represents an example of the application of consensus building to resolution of a complex set of policy issues among a diverse group of stakeholders.

This paper makes the distinction between consensus building process and conflict resolution procedure. Using several diagrams as illustrations the paper examines the various ways public policy seeks to resolve controversies, both in regard to public participation and alternative dispute resolution procedures.